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English Essay Guidelines
GLOSSARY: Conventions of Form
EDITORIAL An editorial is a statement on a current issue written by an editor or editorial board of a publication. The editorial, written or broadcast, reflects the philosophy and position of the publication or media network.
Its purpose is to express ideas and opinions on a contemporary issue of interest to a particular public. This audience, although distant, is identifiable as the readership of a particular region, or the group most likely to buy a particular newspaper. The structure of the editorial includes a very brief introduction, a concentration on the development of the main argument, and concludes with an exhortation to action. Spaceand time limitations tend to keep editorials short and to the point. Expository and persuasive language is used by the editor to develop his/her view on the issue. The voice and viewpoint of the editorial writer is clearly evident — individualistic in style and diction. In print journalism the third person is used, while broadcast editorials use the first person. The tone may be provocative, satirical, or didactic in order to have an impact on the audience, such as a call to action, a development of awareness, an evoking of feeling.
ESSAY: ARGUMENTATIVE
An argumentative essay is a selection of writing designed to defend a position or thesis.
The purpose of the argumentative essay is to convince the reader through reason, logic and illustration that a stated position, view, theory or premise is true or false. Structurally the argumentative essay follows the thesis, point development, conclusion pattern of the formal essay. The audience must be clearly understood by the writer as he develops arguments, anticipates rebuttals, defends conclusions which that audience is likely to present or need in order to be convinced. Thought may be either inductive (moving from the specific to the general) or deductive (moving from a generalization to specific application). The language will be precise, organized, denotative. Where effective, exposition will provide the needed explanation or analysis in order to make a point. While persuasion appeals to emotion and personal involvement, the tone of argumentation is factual, removed, precise, logical. The impact of an argumentative essay is to convince logically and rationally that a viewpoint is true or false, right or wrong.
Essay: CLASSICAL
The classical essay is a highly crafted written exploration/reflection on values and/or life experiences in a philosophical way.
The purpose of the classical essay is to explore and reflect on values and the meaning of experiences. Although the audience includes all mankind, there is often a strong sense of the self of the writer as audience as well. The classical essay is structured in a subtle way that moves purposefully towards an affirmation or assertion of a value or experience. The structure of this essay may move from the broad to the narrow, or vice versa, presenting a range of exploration techniques such as comparison and contrast, use of example, presenting of the pro and the con of a matter, etc. The conclusion is not necessarily definitive but reflects the nature and significance of the exploration. The language is sophisticated, often shaped through evocative word choices and imagery, crafted with elegant simplicity or great elaboration. It may be in first, second, or third person, is often stylized, and strongly rhetorical. The writer’s voice is individualistic. The tone is tentative, reflective, questioning – generally more subjective than objective. While it is usually serious, humour may be used. The impact on the reader is that the process, with its depth, sophistication and worthwhileness involving insight, search and understanding, has involved him/her even if no clear resolution has been established.
ESSAY: DESCRIPTIVE
The descriptive essay focuses on the use of a descriptive style develop the chosen topic.
The purpose of the descriptive essay is to use description to support ideas about a subject. The audience is determined by the subject matter of the essay. The structure of this essay blends the conventions of the essay (introduction, development, conclusion) with those of descriptive writing. The language is built around a descriptive style which uses vivid language, figurative devices, emotive vocabulary, sensory imagery to appeal to the audience. The description is not limited to people, places or things, but may make clear abstract thought, establish the power of a feeling. The development of ideas on a topic remains the dominant throat of this writing, and the descriptive style is the dominant technique used. The voice of the writer will show sensitivity and creative appreciation of the manner in which description will enhance the development of the chosen topic. The voice may be objective or impressionistic communicating the observer’s feelings. In the descriptive essay the tone will be strongly individualistic as the personality of the writer is brought to bear on the chosen topic. The impact of the descriptive essay is its appeal to the reader’s senses and feelings.
ESSAY: FORMAL
The formal essay is a serious written discussion through which a writer conveys a viewpoint on a designated subject.
The purpose of the formal essay is to write about a significant subject by focussing on the ideas rather than the person speaking. Definite structural patterns are associated with different forms of the formal essay (literary essay, classical essay, research essay, report, review). The formal essay is tightly focused on significant subject matter that may be highly specialized or universal. A definite introduction-development-conclusion pattern is used with carefully organized paragraphs to present a thesis, discuss it, and end with a clear conclusion. It is designed to appeal mostly to an audience that is articulate and concerned. The voice of the writer may be strong to subdued, objective to subjective, individualistic to universal. The language used is specialized, controlled, precise, sophisticated and even artistic. The paper offers the reader a cohesive body of thought leading to a definite point of view. The prose used may employ devices or be straightforward and direct. Just as in the informal essay, narration, description, exposition, or argument and persuasion may characterize the writing. The seriousness of the matter and the distance stance of the writer usually dictate the use of third person. The formal essay is usually more serious than the light-hearted tone of the informal essay. The impact which the writer wants for the reader is to think about a subject, to respond to the writer’s view, and to reach a conclusion related to that subject.
ESSAY: HUMOROUS
The informal humorous essay uses humour to develop the chosen topic.
The purpose of this essay is to blend the conventions of essay (introduction, development, conclusion) with the use of humour. The audience has to be carefully considered as humour is very difficult to achieve and sustain. Age, background, culture, gender, social circumstances — all these play an important role in evoking humour. Structurally humour uses situation, characterization, the unexpected, malapropisms, uniqueness, etc. to appeal to the audience. The language of humour will use wit, parallelism, contrast, counterpoint, exaggeration, incongruity, juxtaposition, etc. The writer uses these to capture his/her audience with amusement or enjoyment, and then he will develop his thoughts about the chosen topic. The voice of the writer is not unlike the voice of the comedian, creating, appealing, challenging, evoking, bombarding, etc. the listener. The tone will be casual, personal, light-hearted. The impact is the extent to which the reader is amused by the style and point of the essay.
ESSAY: INFORMAL
The informal essay is a lighter approach to a selection of writing on topical ideas or issues.
The purpose of an informal essay is to engage and involve the reader by writing in a casual, entertaining manner about a subject. The informal essay, such as an article or personal discussion of a subject, may be light-hearted or serious in tone. The content tends to address a topical or contemporary issue, often personal. The writer, whose own personality is often much in evidence, has a specific audience in mind e.g. a readership which will be engaged by such a style of writing. In terms of structure, the informal essay lends itself to the use of innovative approaches and organizational choices: for example, quotes, illustrations, opening anecdote, rhetorical questions, narratives, etc., that could lead to the point of the essay in an indirect fashion. The language of this essay is informal, even conversational, uses a variety of stylistic techniques to engage the reader. Still other devices used to reach the audience are personal anecdotes (narration), vivid images (description), elaborate ideas (exposition), arguments or pleas to create a case (argument/persuasion), satire or irony. All these language devices make the informal essay ‘accessible’ to a broad audience. The voice is strongly personal. The informal essay is commonly written in the first person because of the immediacy between writer and topic.
ESSAY: LITERARY
The literary essay is a rigorously argued analysis/synthesis of a literary work(s).
The purpose is to present or argue the validity of an assertion about a selection of literature. The audience is specialized and knowledgeable about literature and its appreciation/interpretation. The structure requires an early statement of thesis (intent), a logical sequence of points supported by textual references, a highly structured format, and a concluding paragraph for the thesis given. The tone is scholarly and presented by a voice which can range from distant to somewhat individualistic. The language used is formal, largely factual, denotative, and precise. The response/impact on the reader is the quality or level of academic rigor presented.
The comparison-contrast essay is a particularly difficult variation of the literary analysis. The purpose may be to prove the superiority of one work over another or it may be to illuminate two or more works or authors. The mastery of the form is not only helpful in literary analysis but also in many other disciplines.
While the structure of a comparison-contrast essay is similar to that of the literary analysis, the development of the thesis statement is more difficult in that the central idea must straddle common ground in the works being analysed. Similarly, the body of the essay must juggle more than one work while avoiding both the ‘tennis ball’ and ‘clumping’ techniques. Finally, the conclusion must synthesize the disparate elements raised in two or more works.
ESSAY: NARRATIVE
The informal narrative essay focuses on the use of a narrative style to develop the chosen topic.
The purpose of the narrative essay is to communicate a significant experience in order to enlighten and perhaps persuade the reader. The audience is determined by the subject matter of the essay. The structure of this essay blends the conventions of the essay (introduction, development, conclusion) with those of a narrative. It has elements of story, but its thrust is to relate an idea or thesis, explicitly or implicitly, as opposed to developing character or plot in a pure narrative. A strong sense of sequencing is retained to establish a point in time, and the consequences of that experience. Chronology may be altered for dramatic or emotional impact. The language may be formal to informal and even colloquial. It is strongly expressive, using striking images, vivid storytelling. The voice of the writer is strongly individualistic as it uses those narrative activities to present his/her audience with thoughts about a chosen topic. The impact is determined by how effectively the narration elucidates the chosen thesis for the reader.
ESSAY: PERSONAL
The personal essay is an expression of the writer's thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
The purpose of a personal essay is to entertain and involve the reader by sharing the writer's personal response to a subject. The personal essay, such as an article or personal discussion of a subject, may be light-hearted or serious in tone. The content tends to address a topical or contemporary issue, often personal. The writer, whose own personality is often much in evidence, has a specific audience in mind; for example, the readership of a particular magazine, a certain group of administrators, an age group, peers, etc. In terms of structure, the informal essay lends itself to the use of innovative approaches and organizational choices: for example, an opening anecdote, rhetorical question, quotation, etc., that could lead to the point of the essay in an indirect fashion. A variety of stylistic techniques may be part of the language used to engage that audience, a language which is informal, often conversational. To engender interest, a writer may choose to include personal anecdotes (narration), create vivid images (description), elaborate an idea (exposition), build a case (argument/persuasion), or use other specific devices such as satire or irony. The voice is strongly individualistic. The informal essay is commonly written in the first person. The impact depends on the extent to which the writer holds the reader's attention by capturing his imagination, understanding, empathy, and sympathy.
ESSAY: PERSUASIVE
A persuasive essay is a selection of writing designed to change the reader's mind.
The purpose of the persuasive essay is to convince the reader through a strong voice, the writer's conviction, vivid example and illustration to support the stated position taken by the writer. Structurally the persuasive essay respects the organization of the formal essay with greater freedom being taken in the use of supporting material and the impact of voice. The audience will shape the voice and tone of the writer, as it is the writer's intent to influence that group of readers. The voice of the writer is intentionally slanted, but must retain its credibility or integrity by avoiding generalization, fallacious reasoning, exaggeration. The language of a persuasive essay appeals to emotion more than to reason. Because of the predominance of the writer's voice, persuasion may be more emotional, the language more informal and even colloquial. The tone is fundamentally one of appealing to the reader to accept a thesis. The impact of a persuasive essay is to change or to confirm the reader's thinking about an issue or subject with a strong appeal to the emotions, by using examples and illustration, and by citing experience.
ESSAY: RESEARCH PAPER The research essay is a paper on the research findings on the background of, knowledge and views about, a specific subject.
The purpose of a research essay is to identify a thesis, and then in writing explore that thesis in the light of research findings from other writings about that thesis. The intended audience is presumed to be knowledgeable in the field, and the field, and the language in the essay would employ technical diction. Various style manuals have been published to establish the format and the technical aspects of a research essay e.g. APA or MLA. It adopts the structure of a paper with a thesis statement being introduced, defended, warranted and justified. A prime example is the social science paper which is a formal, objective presentation built around facts. Other research essay forms will involve laboratory procedures and case studies, which may be factual or subjective. The tone is academic and logical. The writer's voice is subordinated to the ideas and opinions of the other writer's whose writings have been researched. The impact is the broad understanding gained from the reading, the appreciation of the balanced exploration of the subject, a sense of the meticulousness of the research, and the reaching of a well-founded conclusion.
ESSAY: SATIRICAL
The satirical essay uses satire to develop the chosen topic.
The purpose of this essay is to blend the conventions of the essay (introduction, development, conclusion) with the techniques of satire. Satire exploits human foibles or vices, and exposes foolishness with irony, derision and wit. An audience for a satire must be sensitive to satirical language (nuance, over-statement, tone) and open-minded enough to permit the satirist to irritate, anger or amuse. Usually this would mean a mature, sophisticated audience. Structurally, the satirical essay will employ standard essay form combined with devices such as exaggeration, implication, imaginative illustration, etc. to achieve audience response. The voice of the writer may be bitter and vituperative, but it is just as often humorous and ironic. The voice of the writer must use a tone that is either angry or comic, while realizing that anger may turn the reader away while a comic tone may more easily win agreement. The language used in a satire is dictated by the voice and tone which the writer adopts, and then that language creates and communicates the chosen voice and tone. The impact of satire is the ability to make the reader examine the foibles of the individual and society.
FABLE A fable is a story with a moral lesson.
The purpose of a fable is to teach the moral lesson chosen by the writer by telling a story in which animals talk and act like human beings. The normal narrative structural elements are used: plot, characterization, conflict, setting, theme. The conflict of a fable is directly related to the moral normally given at the end of the story. The setting is less important than the voices of the characters which the writer creates. The audience of the fable may be either young or old, but the tone of the fable has the qualities of children's literature, simple and yet subtle. In a fable the language used is simple and repetitive. The ideas are predictable and short. Techniques such as suspense and foreshadowing are frequently used. The voice of the writer is that of the neutral narrator, the storyteller, sharing a simple experience with a listening audience. If read to an audience, the voices of the characters may be dramatized, and the emotions experienced dramatized with voice and actions. There often is an underlying voice, the voice of the writer, sardonic, ironic, amused by the foibles of humanity. The intended impact of a fable is to demonstrate and teach the truth of the given moral.
LETTER: FORMAL - BUSINESS
A letter is a written communication sent by the writer to an identified recipient, usually through a delivery system.
There are many purposes for a formal letter (send a message, give information, make a request, explain a situation, etc.). The formal letter has a definite structure: sender’s address, date, the recipient’s address, the salutation, the message, the closing, and additional information. The audience is clearly defined by the inside address and the salutation. The language reflects the writer's voice and his or her attitude and purpose. It is literal, precise, denotative, controlled specialized. The writer uses short, controlled paragraphs. The intended impact of the writer is to transmit a message to a specific audience in order to communicate a message accurately, provide the needed detail to make it possible for the recipient to take action, and to specify the nature of the desired response. The tone is determined by the impact which the writer wishes to make through the communication.
LETTER: INFORMAL - PERSONAL
A personal letter is a written communication, an interactive exchange, between individuals.
The purpose of an informal (personal) letter is a communication between two (or more) people who know each other. There is an accepted structure for the personal letter (sender’s, address, date, greeting, message, closing) but many personal letters are modifications of such a format. The audience is clearly identified in the greeting. There is a naturalness, an authenticity, to the language in its informality, spontaneity, fragmented presentation. Its flow is determined by the voice of the sender talking with an acquaintance. The variety of the contents of an informal letter is endless (ideas, narratives, feelings, information) but the underlying tone of the text is individual - friendly, casual, even spontaneous, determined by the nature of the message(s) of the communication, and the mood and personality of the sender as well as the relationship of the sender-receiver. The impact of an informal letter relies on the power and effect of the letter on the receiver.
LETTER: TO THE EDITOR
This is a letter sent to the editor of a publication in which a reader presents an opinion on a contemporary issue.
A letter to the editor serves the purpose of allowing the reader to voice his/her views on a subject of current interest. Structurally this letter is modified by the editor of this section in a newspaper into a compact two or three paragraph statement of issue-related ideas - conclusion format, with the author's name and city appended. The audience is the newspaper readership. The language and voice reflect the sensitivity and strong feelings of a concerned writer with a strong view. The tone may be critical, probing, amusing, mocking, congratulatory, pleading, bitter, rude, indignant, angry - depending on how the writer personally feels about the issue, and this tone will shape the language used. 7be overall impact of such a letter is to win reader acceptance or approval, to vent feelings in a public forum, or to shape public opinion.
MONOLOGUE: DRAMATIC
The dramatic monologue is lyric writing, often a poem, in which a solo speaker addresses a reader or audience at a decisive moment.
The purpose of the dramatic monologue is to reveal in depth or reach an audience by having a person speak to a listening audience without another character being present to influence or shape what is said. The presence of an audience, a drama opportunity, is what gives this form its power to achieve revelation of the self The structure of a dramatic monologue is usually a speech (may be in poem form) in which a narrative may be told or an issue explained or explored. The voice, untouched by the presence of active listeners, reveals the true thoughts and feelings of the speaker, caught in a dramatic moment. The language reveals the speaker and his/her feelings, intimately revealing, often emotional, as it describes the tension or trauma of the moment. The language is shaped, sculpted, and even enriched with poetic imagery. Some dramatic monologues include a description of the setting and stage directions. The tone closely reflects the mental and emotional state of the speaker. Because the dramatic monologue usually deals with a key moment, its impact is designed to offer the audience an insight and appreciation about that moment which would normally not be available. The impact is heightened by the presence of an audience.
MONOLOGUE: INTERIOR
The interior monologue is a presentation of personal reflections of an individual to him/herself.
The purpose of the interior monologue is to capture the innermost, most intimate thoughts and feelings of an individual in the freedom of privacy. It provides insight into the mind of the individual. The intended audience is the speaker. There may be a listener in the situation to whom the thoughts are directed, but no response is offered by or expected from that listener. The structure of the text does not conform to a prescribed format. It may be logical and concise, and it may also be rambling and disjointed. This form is a device, a tool, to reach into the self. The voice is introspective, intensely personal, verging on the withdrawn. The language may be expressive (spontaneous), or shaped (crafted) by the thought process of the individual. The tone reflects the mental and emotional state of the speaker. While the monologue is intended to be an intensely personal expression, its impact can verge on the artistic as it presents a "window into the heart” of the speaker.
POEM There have been many definitions or explanations given to capture the essence of poetry. None are all encompassing, and each adds an aspect to the potential of this literary form. It is a form which enables the writer to use language artistically, in a highly creative and personal manner.
Purpose in poetry is intensely individualistic and defies definition. Some of the ways in which a purpose of a poem may be described are: to artistically put an idea into words, to delight and instruct the reader, to capture feeling. The structural elements basic to poetry are: a highly compressed piece of writing, a clear writer voice, the use of literal and figurative levels of language, a line/word form which promotes the poet's intent, syntax and punctuation which serve the ideas. There are styles of poetry such as narrative, lyric, epic, and poetic forms with strictly defined structures and characteristics - sonnets and ballads. The language may be in free verse, blank verse, or conventional form. Literal and figurative techniques, imagery, personification, alliteration, sound effects, words and line rhythm, rhyme schemes - all constitute the language which creates this highly compressed literary form. A poem has a highly distinctive voice, but that voice may take many forms, depending on the purpose. The tone of a poem will reveal the writer's voice and help the reader to grasp what the poem is trying to present/say. The impact of poetry emerges from the partnership established by the poet creating a word picture or statement which the audience, the reader, then unravels and in the process creates into his/her own unique response to the stimuli offered by the poem. While the poem itself is an artistic creation, the unique coming together of poet, text, and reader also is art in its own right.
REPORT A report is a synthesis, or highlighting of broader information, obtained from an in-depth study.
The purpose of a report is to inform, interpret and sometimes to recommend. It may be highly technical and academic for an audience in a specialized field or more generalfor a wider audience. The structure of a report may be in the form of a document, book report, news feature, scientific study, minutes of a meeting, etc. Report writing language is clear and denotative, but will differ depending on the topic and purpose: clinical reports follow an inductive style, using predetermined headings and formats; public policy reports will attempt to synthesize information, perhaps with the use of headings and sub-headings; some reports may highlight major points through graphs and charts. Writers adopt an objective tone to keep to the point and voice will not play a significant role in the presentation. The impact on the reader is designed to be serious, but may be engaging because of the information given or the recommendations made.
REVIEW A review is a written evaluation of a book, movie, musical performance, public presentation, etc.
The purpose of a review is to make a value judgment about a play, movie, book, or concert. The review may range from informal to formal and it is often associated with media. The audience for that review is determined by where the review is presented or published. Many reviews are written for specialized audiences, and may be highly praiseworthy or condemnatory. Audience response may be one of irritation if a reviewer is unfairly critical or acerbic in tone. The structure of a review may take many forms but must include a summary and develop an opinion. The language is varied, depending on the subject and the intended audience. The voice of the reviewer reveals his/her personality and permeates the writing. The tone is usually spirited, lively, informed, critical. The best review reveals the knowledge of the reviewer. Expertise, commitment and passion can often contribute to reviews that are finely crafted to the level of art. The impact of the review on the reader may be to have him form an opinion or take specific action because it informed, pleased, justified, aggravated, challenged, negated or praised.
SCRIPT A script is the text for a dramatic presentation.
The purpose of a script is to provide the text and directions for a dramatic or media presentation - television, radio, advertising, film, stage. Depending on the medium, the script has a highly specialized format. The structural elements of all scripts include dialogue/text/story, stage and acting directions, sound effects instructions, blocking indicators, camera shots and angles, settings and costumes. The audience of a script is the director/actor/speaker initially, and then the public audience for whom the script is being interpreted and presented. The impact of the script depends very much on the interpretation and shaping by the director/actor/speaker. That impact is further developed as the audience participates in the creative process with its response to the presentation. The skill of the script writer is to prepare a text (plot, action, voice, tone, language) which permits this creative experience to happen. The language of a script for the dialogue of the text will be normal conversation or poetic dialogue. The story of a script is told in a compact manner because a stage play is a one to two hour complete experience/story, and television/radio/media texts have strict production time parameters. The language for the directions must be terse, precise and objective. A script is composed of the voices of its character(s), but superimposed on those voices is the voice of the writer establishing a theme or impact, creating a tone best suited to the purpose of the script. (Script for an advertisement would be upbeat, brisk - designed to sell or inform; script for a stage play would be light for a comedy, serious for a tragedy, provocative to develop a theme).
SHORT STORY The Short Story is a work of highly condensed narrative prose fiction.
The short story is an evolving genre and has been subject to considerable and interesting experimentation in recent years. Some writers are attracted to the commercial style of the short story with its somewhat conventional themes, stereotypical characters and predictable endings, while others may experiment with less conventional themes and outcomes, complex characterizations, and innovative structures. The purpose of the short story is to elicit both enjoyment and understanding from its readers. It is a literary genre characterized by certain identifiable structural elements: plot, characterization, conflict, setting, theme – not all necessarily present in all stories. The structural elements work together to create a unified whole (highly disciplined, tightly organized pattern, a plot line with a recognizable climax, emphasis on revelation rather than development of several characters, consistency of mood). The audience is the readership of a particular publication. The language captures a potent, colourful picture of human experience with great economy of word. The voice of the writer/storyteller is the shaper of and is shaped by the story as it unfolds, establishing a tone which enables the audience to enjoy and appreciate. The short story frequently ends with an impact, a resolution which leaves the reader with an insight into the life experience.
SPEECH A speech is the text for an oral presentation.
The purpose of a speech is to influence, motivate, and/or inspire an audience with an oral presentation (formal or informal) prepared for a specific occasion. There is a direct interplay between speaker and listener, an impact involving the audience mentally, emotionally, and even physically. The structural elements of a speech usually include a salutation, recurring references to the listening audience, and a conclusion (appeal, demand, challenge) and expression of gratitude. The voice of the speaker will elicit an immediate and sustained response from the listener, using a text written in language which employs rhetoric, stylistic devices (pauses, lead-ins, points, repetitions, questions), and stylization to suit the particular context. Tone and voice reflect the personality and position of the speaker as well as his/her response to the situation. Depending on the purpose of the speech the tone may be impassioned or reserved, informal or formal, determined by the context in which the speech is delivered and received. Formal speeches may be considered oral ways and are often published.
EDITORIAL An editorial is a statement on a current issue written by an editor or editorial board of a publication. The editorial, written or broadcast, reflects the philosophy and position of the publication or media network.
Its purpose is to express ideas and opinions on a contemporary issue of interest to a particular public. This audience, although distant, is identifiable as the readership of a particular region, or the group most likely to buy a particular newspaper. The structure of the editorial includes a very brief introduction, a concentration on the development of the main argument, and concludes with an exhortation to action. Spaceand time limitations tend to keep editorials short and to the point. Expository and persuasive language is used by the editor to develop his/her view on the issue. The voice and viewpoint of the editorial writer is clearly evident — individualistic in style and diction. In print journalism the third person is used, while broadcast editorials use the first person. The tone may be provocative, satirical, or didactic in order to have an impact on the audience, such as a call to action, a development of awareness, an evoking of feeling.
ESSAY: ARGUMENTATIVE
An argumentative essay is a selection of writing designed to defend a position or thesis.
The purpose of the argumentative essay is to convince the reader through reason, logic and illustration that a stated position, view, theory or premise is true or false. Structurally the argumentative essay follows the thesis, point development, conclusion pattern of the formal essay. The audience must be clearly understood by the writer as he develops arguments, anticipates rebuttals, defends conclusions which that audience is likely to present or need in order to be convinced. Thought may be either inductive (moving from the specific to the general) or deductive (moving from a generalization to specific application). The language will be precise, organized, denotative. Where effective, exposition will provide the needed explanation or analysis in order to make a point. While persuasion appeals to emotion and personal involvement, the tone of argumentation is factual, removed, precise, logical. The impact of an argumentative essay is to convince logically and rationally that a viewpoint is true or false, right or wrong.
Essay: CLASSICAL
The classical essay is a highly crafted written exploration/reflection on values and/or life experiences in a philosophical way.
The purpose of the classical essay is to explore and reflect on values and the meaning of experiences. Although the audience includes all mankind, there is often a strong sense of the self of the writer as audience as well. The classical essay is structured in a subtle way that moves purposefully towards an affirmation or assertion of a value or experience. The structure of this essay may move from the broad to the narrow, or vice versa, presenting a range of exploration techniques such as comparison and contrast, use of example, presenting of the pro and the con of a matter, etc. The conclusion is not necessarily definitive but reflects the nature and significance of the exploration. The language is sophisticated, often shaped through evocative word choices and imagery, crafted with elegant simplicity or great elaboration. It may be in first, second, or third person, is often stylized, and strongly rhetorical. The writer’s voice is individualistic. The tone is tentative, reflective, questioning – generally more subjective than objective. While it is usually serious, humour may be used. The impact on the reader is that the process, with its depth, sophistication and worthwhileness involving insight, search and understanding, has involved him/her even if no clear resolution has been established.
ESSAY: DESCRIPTIVE
The descriptive essay focuses on the use of a descriptive style develop the chosen topic.
The purpose of the descriptive essay is to use description to support ideas about a subject. The audience is determined by the subject matter of the essay. The structure of this essay blends the conventions of the essay (introduction, development, conclusion) with those of descriptive writing. The language is built around a descriptive style which uses vivid language, figurative devices, emotive vocabulary, sensory imagery to appeal to the audience. The description is not limited to people, places or things, but may make clear abstract thought, establish the power of a feeling. The development of ideas on a topic remains the dominant throat of this writing, and the descriptive style is the dominant technique used. The voice of the writer will show sensitivity and creative appreciation of the manner in which description will enhance the development of the chosen topic. The voice may be objective or impressionistic communicating the observer’s feelings. In the descriptive essay the tone will be strongly individualistic as the personality of the writer is brought to bear on the chosen topic. The impact of the descriptive essay is its appeal to the reader’s senses and feelings.
ESSAY: FORMAL
The formal essay is a serious written discussion through which a writer conveys a viewpoint on a designated subject.
The purpose of the formal essay is to write about a significant subject by focussing on the ideas rather than the person speaking. Definite structural patterns are associated with different forms of the formal essay (literary essay, classical essay, research essay, report, review). The formal essay is tightly focused on significant subject matter that may be highly specialized or universal. A definite introduction-development-conclusion pattern is used with carefully organized paragraphs to present a thesis, discuss it, and end with a clear conclusion. It is designed to appeal mostly to an audience that is articulate and concerned. The voice of the writer may be strong to subdued, objective to subjective, individualistic to universal. The language used is specialized, controlled, precise, sophisticated and even artistic. The paper offers the reader a cohesive body of thought leading to a definite point of view. The prose used may employ devices or be straightforward and direct. Just as in the informal essay, narration, description, exposition, or argument and persuasion may characterize the writing. The seriousness of the matter and the distance stance of the writer usually dictate the use of third person. The formal essay is usually more serious than the light-hearted tone of the informal essay. The impact which the writer wants for the reader is to think about a subject, to respond to the writer’s view, and to reach a conclusion related to that subject.
ESSAY: HUMOROUS
The informal humorous essay uses humour to develop the chosen topic.
The purpose of this essay is to blend the conventions of essay (introduction, development, conclusion) with the use of humour. The audience has to be carefully considered as humour is very difficult to achieve and sustain. Age, background, culture, gender, social circumstances — all these play an important role in evoking humour. Structurally humour uses situation, characterization, the unexpected, malapropisms, uniqueness, etc. to appeal to the audience. The language of humour will use wit, parallelism, contrast, counterpoint, exaggeration, incongruity, juxtaposition, etc. The writer uses these to capture his/her audience with amusement or enjoyment, and then he will develop his thoughts about the chosen topic. The voice of the writer is not unlike the voice of the comedian, creating, appealing, challenging, evoking, bombarding, etc. the listener. The tone will be casual, personal, light-hearted. The impact is the extent to which the reader is amused by the style and point of the essay.
ESSAY: INFORMAL
The informal essay is a lighter approach to a selection of writing on topical ideas or issues.
The purpose of an informal essay is to engage and involve the reader by writing in a casual, entertaining manner about a subject. The informal essay, such as an article or personal discussion of a subject, may be light-hearted or serious in tone. The content tends to address a topical or contemporary issue, often personal. The writer, whose own personality is often much in evidence, has a specific audience in mind e.g. a readership which will be engaged by such a style of writing. In terms of structure, the informal essay lends itself to the use of innovative approaches and organizational choices: for example, quotes, illustrations, opening anecdote, rhetorical questions, narratives, etc., that could lead to the point of the essay in an indirect fashion. The language of this essay is informal, even conversational, uses a variety of stylistic techniques to engage the reader. Still other devices used to reach the audience are personal anecdotes (narration), vivid images (description), elaborate ideas (exposition), arguments or pleas to create a case (argument/persuasion), satire or irony. All these language devices make the informal essay ‘accessible’ to a broad audience. The voice is strongly personal. The informal essay is commonly written in the first person because of the immediacy between writer and topic.
ESSAY: LITERARY
The literary essay is a rigorously argued analysis/synthesis of a literary work(s).
The purpose is to present or argue the validity of an assertion about a selection of literature. The audience is specialized and knowledgeable about literature and its appreciation/interpretation. The structure requires an early statement of thesis (intent), a logical sequence of points supported by textual references, a highly structured format, and a concluding paragraph for the thesis given. The tone is scholarly and presented by a voice which can range from distant to somewhat individualistic. The language used is formal, largely factual, denotative, and precise. The response/impact on the reader is the quality or level of academic rigor presented.
The comparison-contrast essay is a particularly difficult variation of the literary analysis. The purpose may be to prove the superiority of one work over another or it may be to illuminate two or more works or authors. The mastery of the form is not only helpful in literary analysis but also in many other disciplines.
While the structure of a comparison-contrast essay is similar to that of the literary analysis, the development of the thesis statement is more difficult in that the central idea must straddle common ground in the works being analysed. Similarly, the body of the essay must juggle more than one work while avoiding both the ‘tennis ball’ and ‘clumping’ techniques. Finally, the conclusion must synthesize the disparate elements raised in two or more works.
ESSAY: NARRATIVE
The informal narrative essay focuses on the use of a narrative style to develop the chosen topic.
The purpose of the narrative essay is to communicate a significant experience in order to enlighten and perhaps persuade the reader. The audience is determined by the subject matter of the essay. The structure of this essay blends the conventions of the essay (introduction, development, conclusion) with those of a narrative. It has elements of story, but its thrust is to relate an idea or thesis, explicitly or implicitly, as opposed to developing character or plot in a pure narrative. A strong sense of sequencing is retained to establish a point in time, and the consequences of that experience. Chronology may be altered for dramatic or emotional impact. The language may be formal to informal and even colloquial. It is strongly expressive, using striking images, vivid storytelling. The voice of the writer is strongly individualistic as it uses those narrative activities to present his/her audience with thoughts about a chosen topic. The impact is determined by how effectively the narration elucidates the chosen thesis for the reader.
ESSAY: PERSONAL
The personal essay is an expression of the writer's thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
The purpose of a personal essay is to entertain and involve the reader by sharing the writer's personal response to a subject. The personal essay, such as an article or personal discussion of a subject, may be light-hearted or serious in tone. The content tends to address a topical or contemporary issue, often personal. The writer, whose own personality is often much in evidence, has a specific audience in mind; for example, the readership of a particular magazine, a certain group of administrators, an age group, peers, etc. In terms of structure, the informal essay lends itself to the use of innovative approaches and organizational choices: for example, an opening anecdote, rhetorical question, quotation, etc., that could lead to the point of the essay in an indirect fashion. A variety of stylistic techniques may be part of the language used to engage that audience, a language which is informal, often conversational. To engender interest, a writer may choose to include personal anecdotes (narration), create vivid images (description), elaborate an idea (exposition), build a case (argument/persuasion), or use other specific devices such as satire or irony. The voice is strongly individualistic. The informal essay is commonly written in the first person. The impact depends on the extent to which the writer holds the reader's attention by capturing his imagination, understanding, empathy, and sympathy.
ESSAY: PERSUASIVE
A persuasive essay is a selection of writing designed to change the reader's mind.
The purpose of the persuasive essay is to convince the reader through a strong voice, the writer's conviction, vivid example and illustration to support the stated position taken by the writer. Structurally the persuasive essay respects the organization of the formal essay with greater freedom being taken in the use of supporting material and the impact of voice. The audience will shape the voice and tone of the writer, as it is the writer's intent to influence that group of readers. The voice of the writer is intentionally slanted, but must retain its credibility or integrity by avoiding generalization, fallacious reasoning, exaggeration. The language of a persuasive essay appeals to emotion more than to reason. Because of the predominance of the writer's voice, persuasion may be more emotional, the language more informal and even colloquial. The tone is fundamentally one of appealing to the reader to accept a thesis. The impact of a persuasive essay is to change or to confirm the reader's thinking about an issue or subject with a strong appeal to the emotions, by using examples and illustration, and by citing experience.
ESSAY: RESEARCH PAPER The research essay is a paper on the research findings on the background of, knowledge and views about, a specific subject.
The purpose of a research essay is to identify a thesis, and then in writing explore that thesis in the light of research findings from other writings about that thesis. The intended audience is presumed to be knowledgeable in the field, and the field, and the language in the essay would employ technical diction. Various style manuals have been published to establish the format and the technical aspects of a research essay e.g. APA or MLA. It adopts the structure of a paper with a thesis statement being introduced, defended, warranted and justified. A prime example is the social science paper which is a formal, objective presentation built around facts. Other research essay forms will involve laboratory procedures and case studies, which may be factual or subjective. The tone is academic and logical. The writer's voice is subordinated to the ideas and opinions of the other writer's whose writings have been researched. The impact is the broad understanding gained from the reading, the appreciation of the balanced exploration of the subject, a sense of the meticulousness of the research, and the reaching of a well-founded conclusion.
ESSAY: SATIRICAL
The satirical essay uses satire to develop the chosen topic.
The purpose of this essay is to blend the conventions of the essay (introduction, development, conclusion) with the techniques of satire. Satire exploits human foibles or vices, and exposes foolishness with irony, derision and wit. An audience for a satire must be sensitive to satirical language (nuance, over-statement, tone) and open-minded enough to permit the satirist to irritate, anger or amuse. Usually this would mean a mature, sophisticated audience. Structurally, the satirical essay will employ standard essay form combined with devices such as exaggeration, implication, imaginative illustration, etc. to achieve audience response. The voice of the writer may be bitter and vituperative, but it is just as often humorous and ironic. The voice of the writer must use a tone that is either angry or comic, while realizing that anger may turn the reader away while a comic tone may more easily win agreement. The language used in a satire is dictated by the voice and tone which the writer adopts, and then that language creates and communicates the chosen voice and tone. The impact of satire is the ability to make the reader examine the foibles of the individual and society.
FABLE A fable is a story with a moral lesson.
The purpose of a fable is to teach the moral lesson chosen by the writer by telling a story in which animals talk and act like human beings. The normal narrative structural elements are used: plot, characterization, conflict, setting, theme. The conflict of a fable is directly related to the moral normally given at the end of the story. The setting is less important than the voices of the characters which the writer creates. The audience of the fable may be either young or old, but the tone of the fable has the qualities of children's literature, simple and yet subtle. In a fable the language used is simple and repetitive. The ideas are predictable and short. Techniques such as suspense and foreshadowing are frequently used. The voice of the writer is that of the neutral narrator, the storyteller, sharing a simple experience with a listening audience. If read to an audience, the voices of the characters may be dramatized, and the emotions experienced dramatized with voice and actions. There often is an underlying voice, the voice of the writer, sardonic, ironic, amused by the foibles of humanity. The intended impact of a fable is to demonstrate and teach the truth of the given moral.
LETTER: FORMAL - BUSINESS
A letter is a written communication sent by the writer to an identified recipient, usually through a delivery system.
There are many purposes for a formal letter (send a message, give information, make a request, explain a situation, etc.). The formal letter has a definite structure: sender’s address, date, the recipient’s address, the salutation, the message, the closing, and additional information. The audience is clearly defined by the inside address and the salutation. The language reflects the writer's voice and his or her attitude and purpose. It is literal, precise, denotative, controlled specialized. The writer uses short, controlled paragraphs. The intended impact of the writer is to transmit a message to a specific audience in order to communicate a message accurately, provide the needed detail to make it possible for the recipient to take action, and to specify the nature of the desired response. The tone is determined by the impact which the writer wishes to make through the communication.
LETTER: INFORMAL - PERSONAL
A personal letter is a written communication, an interactive exchange, between individuals.
The purpose of an informal (personal) letter is a communication between two (or more) people who know each other. There is an accepted structure for the personal letter (sender’s, address, date, greeting, message, closing) but many personal letters are modifications of such a format. The audience is clearly identified in the greeting. There is a naturalness, an authenticity, to the language in its informality, spontaneity, fragmented presentation. Its flow is determined by the voice of the sender talking with an acquaintance. The variety of the contents of an informal letter is endless (ideas, narratives, feelings, information) but the underlying tone of the text is individual - friendly, casual, even spontaneous, determined by the nature of the message(s) of the communication, and the mood and personality of the sender as well as the relationship of the sender-receiver. The impact of an informal letter relies on the power and effect of the letter on the receiver.
LETTER: TO THE EDITOR
This is a letter sent to the editor of a publication in which a reader presents an opinion on a contemporary issue.
A letter to the editor serves the purpose of allowing the reader to voice his/her views on a subject of current interest. Structurally this letter is modified by the editor of this section in a newspaper into a compact two or three paragraph statement of issue-related ideas - conclusion format, with the author's name and city appended. The audience is the newspaper readership. The language and voice reflect the sensitivity and strong feelings of a concerned writer with a strong view. The tone may be critical, probing, amusing, mocking, congratulatory, pleading, bitter, rude, indignant, angry - depending on how the writer personally feels about the issue, and this tone will shape the language used. 7be overall impact of such a letter is to win reader acceptance or approval, to vent feelings in a public forum, or to shape public opinion.
MONOLOGUE: DRAMATIC
The dramatic monologue is lyric writing, often a poem, in which a solo speaker addresses a reader or audience at a decisive moment.
The purpose of the dramatic monologue is to reveal in depth or reach an audience by having a person speak to a listening audience without another character being present to influence or shape what is said. The presence of an audience, a drama opportunity, is what gives this form its power to achieve revelation of the self The structure of a dramatic monologue is usually a speech (may be in poem form) in which a narrative may be told or an issue explained or explored. The voice, untouched by the presence of active listeners, reveals the true thoughts and feelings of the speaker, caught in a dramatic moment. The language reveals the speaker and his/her feelings, intimately revealing, often emotional, as it describes the tension or trauma of the moment. The language is shaped, sculpted, and even enriched with poetic imagery. Some dramatic monologues include a description of the setting and stage directions. The tone closely reflects the mental and emotional state of the speaker. Because the dramatic monologue usually deals with a key moment, its impact is designed to offer the audience an insight and appreciation about that moment which would normally not be available. The impact is heightened by the presence of an audience.
MONOLOGUE: INTERIOR
The interior monologue is a presentation of personal reflections of an individual to him/herself.
The purpose of the interior monologue is to capture the innermost, most intimate thoughts and feelings of an individual in the freedom of privacy. It provides insight into the mind of the individual. The intended audience is the speaker. There may be a listener in the situation to whom the thoughts are directed, but no response is offered by or expected from that listener. The structure of the text does not conform to a prescribed format. It may be logical and concise, and it may also be rambling and disjointed. This form is a device, a tool, to reach into the self. The voice is introspective, intensely personal, verging on the withdrawn. The language may be expressive (spontaneous), or shaped (crafted) by the thought process of the individual. The tone reflects the mental and emotional state of the speaker. While the monologue is intended to be an intensely personal expression, its impact can verge on the artistic as it presents a "window into the heart” of the speaker.
POEM There have been many definitions or explanations given to capture the essence of poetry. None are all encompassing, and each adds an aspect to the potential of this literary form. It is a form which enables the writer to use language artistically, in a highly creative and personal manner.
Purpose in poetry is intensely individualistic and defies definition. Some of the ways in which a purpose of a poem may be described are: to artistically put an idea into words, to delight and instruct the reader, to capture feeling. The structural elements basic to poetry are: a highly compressed piece of writing, a clear writer voice, the use of literal and figurative levels of language, a line/word form which promotes the poet's intent, syntax and punctuation which serve the ideas. There are styles of poetry such as narrative, lyric, epic, and poetic forms with strictly defined structures and characteristics - sonnets and ballads. The language may be in free verse, blank verse, or conventional form. Literal and figurative techniques, imagery, personification, alliteration, sound effects, words and line rhythm, rhyme schemes - all constitute the language which creates this highly compressed literary form. A poem has a highly distinctive voice, but that voice may take many forms, depending on the purpose. The tone of a poem will reveal the writer's voice and help the reader to grasp what the poem is trying to present/say. The impact of poetry emerges from the partnership established by the poet creating a word picture or statement which the audience, the reader, then unravels and in the process creates into his/her own unique response to the stimuli offered by the poem. While the poem itself is an artistic creation, the unique coming together of poet, text, and reader also is art in its own right.
REPORT A report is a synthesis, or highlighting of broader information, obtained from an in-depth study.
The purpose of a report is to inform, interpret and sometimes to recommend. It may be highly technical and academic for an audience in a specialized field or more generalfor a wider audience. The structure of a report may be in the form of a document, book report, news feature, scientific study, minutes of a meeting, etc. Report writing language is clear and denotative, but will differ depending on the topic and purpose: clinical reports follow an inductive style, using predetermined headings and formats; public policy reports will attempt to synthesize information, perhaps with the use of headings and sub-headings; some reports may highlight major points through graphs and charts. Writers adopt an objective tone to keep to the point and voice will not play a significant role in the presentation. The impact on the reader is designed to be serious, but may be engaging because of the information given or the recommendations made.
REVIEW A review is a written evaluation of a book, movie, musical performance, public presentation, etc.
The purpose of a review is to make a value judgment about a play, movie, book, or concert. The review may range from informal to formal and it is often associated with media. The audience for that review is determined by where the review is presented or published. Many reviews are written for specialized audiences, and may be highly praiseworthy or condemnatory. Audience response may be one of irritation if a reviewer is unfairly critical or acerbic in tone. The structure of a review may take many forms but must include a summary and develop an opinion. The language is varied, depending on the subject and the intended audience. The voice of the reviewer reveals his/her personality and permeates the writing. The tone is usually spirited, lively, informed, critical. The best review reveals the knowledge of the reviewer. Expertise, commitment and passion can often contribute to reviews that are finely crafted to the level of art. The impact of the review on the reader may be to have him form an opinion or take specific action because it informed, pleased, justified, aggravated, challenged, negated or praised.
SCRIPT A script is the text for a dramatic presentation.
The purpose of a script is to provide the text and directions for a dramatic or media presentation - television, radio, advertising, film, stage. Depending on the medium, the script has a highly specialized format. The structural elements of all scripts include dialogue/text/story, stage and acting directions, sound effects instructions, blocking indicators, camera shots and angles, settings and costumes. The audience of a script is the director/actor/speaker initially, and then the public audience for whom the script is being interpreted and presented. The impact of the script depends very much on the interpretation and shaping by the director/actor/speaker. That impact is further developed as the audience participates in the creative process with its response to the presentation. The skill of the script writer is to prepare a text (plot, action, voice, tone, language) which permits this creative experience to happen. The language of a script for the dialogue of the text will be normal conversation or poetic dialogue. The story of a script is told in a compact manner because a stage play is a one to two hour complete experience/story, and television/radio/media texts have strict production time parameters. The language for the directions must be terse, precise and objective. A script is composed of the voices of its character(s), but superimposed on those voices is the voice of the writer establishing a theme or impact, creating a tone best suited to the purpose of the script. (Script for an advertisement would be upbeat, brisk - designed to sell or inform; script for a stage play would be light for a comedy, serious for a tragedy, provocative to develop a theme).
SHORT STORY The Short Story is a work of highly condensed narrative prose fiction.
The short story is an evolving genre and has been subject to considerable and interesting experimentation in recent years. Some writers are attracted to the commercial style of the short story with its somewhat conventional themes, stereotypical characters and predictable endings, while others may experiment with less conventional themes and outcomes, complex characterizations, and innovative structures. The purpose of the short story is to elicit both enjoyment and understanding from its readers. It is a literary genre characterized by certain identifiable structural elements: plot, characterization, conflict, setting, theme – not all necessarily present in all stories. The structural elements work together to create a unified whole (highly disciplined, tightly organized pattern, a plot line with a recognizable climax, emphasis on revelation rather than development of several characters, consistency of mood). The audience is the readership of a particular publication. The language captures a potent, colourful picture of human experience with great economy of word. The voice of the writer/storyteller is the shaper of and is shaped by the story as it unfolds, establishing a tone which enables the audience to enjoy and appreciate. The short story frequently ends with an impact, a resolution which leaves the reader with an insight into the life experience.
SPEECH A speech is the text for an oral presentation.
The purpose of a speech is to influence, motivate, and/or inspire an audience with an oral presentation (formal or informal) prepared for a specific occasion. There is a direct interplay between speaker and listener, an impact involving the audience mentally, emotionally, and even physically. The structural elements of a speech usually include a salutation, recurring references to the listening audience, and a conclusion (appeal, demand, challenge) and expression of gratitude. The voice of the speaker will elicit an immediate and sustained response from the listener, using a text written in language which employs rhetoric, stylistic devices (pauses, lead-ins, points, repetitions, questions), and stylization to suit the particular context. Tone and voice reflect the personality and position of the speaker as well as his/her response to the situation. Depending on the purpose of the speech the tone may be impassioned or reserved, informal or formal, determined by the context in which the speech is delivered and received. Formal speeches may be considered oral ways and are often published.